The peak demand of energy in China is estimated in consideration of regional differences of their future energy demands. The structure of energy consumption is different among provinces in China and the difference depends on the economic and industrial structures. The differences are investigated in comparison with the existing two typical developed countries, Japan and USA as future directions of different consumption pattern. This study indicates wide range of differences because of the different development status. It shows variety of energy consumption scenarios. One of the scenarios is that rapid growth of energy demand will not occur under such situation of widening regional economic disparity. In another scenario, the huge additional increment of energy demand will occur if the regional disparity and living standards are improved especially in the low-energy consuming region. In this study, the peak demand is expected to come during the latter half of this century.

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In open pit mines, many dump trucks bring ores from some working faces to shafts or concentrating plant. As management policy, excavators, dump trucks and operators are expected to work efficiently, that is, excavators should not pause to wait dump trucks and dump trucks also should not wait the excavators. To be concrete, next dump truck should come just after present dump truck that is now loading ores will finish. However, it is quite difficult to prepare the optimized dump truck schedule that satisfies these conditions, because there is huge number of combinations of dump truck orders. In addition there are some kinds of dump trucks and excavators in capacity. Moreover, the alternative schedule have to be prepared soon, if some machines would be trouble. Therefore, usually some dispatchers watch the situations and instruct next working face to drivers not to waste waiting time in both dump trucks and excavators.In this study, optimum dump truck scheduling was solved using genetic algorithm to make optimized plan in reasonable process time. Firstly, number and capacity of dump trucks and excavators are supposed, and then working faces corresponded to each excavator are located secondly. These assumptions were considered based on actual open pit mines. Each dump truck and excavator is given own ID. The genotype means the dump truck order in a working face through one day operations. The genes in genotype consist of dump truck ID. Lethal genes are not generated by crossover because lack or duplication of dump truck ID in genotype is not problem. Fitness value is estimated by sum of the idle time of all excavators, so that lower fitness value is better genotype and higher fitness value is worse genotype.

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In most of industrialized countries, it is necessary to increase voter turnout rates as these have remained low in recent elections. Although some measures to increase voter turnout rates have been implemented, they have had little effect on the actual rates. On the other hand, it is expected that a reconstruction of the polls combination would increase the rate by a considerable degree and at a reasonable costs.In this paper, a simulation model was used to obtain the optimum combination of polls that would result in the highest voter turnout rates. First, a virtual city was considered along the lines of Takatsuki city in Japan. There were approximately 290,000 voters in this city, and 66 polls were chosen from among public buildings. The distribution of both these elements corresponds to that in the existent city. Each voter has his/her own attributes that influence the voting decision, for example, age, the intensity of the identification with the party, the distance from the nearest poll, income, and so on. These personal factors were randomly settled according to census or statistical data by using probability distributions. The weather and temperature were also set based on the conditions in past elections. Utility functions based on these factors were considered in order to obtain the optimum combination. This model should prove useful to local governments in making efficient budget allocations.

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In some limestone quarries that are requested phosphorus control, limestone blocks with low phosphorus concentrations are blended with limestone blocks with high phosphorus concentrations to make quarry lifetime longer.Optimum combinations were solved by DP (Dynamic Programming) and GA (Genetic Algorithm).In GA, though it was possible to solve in reasonable process time, the solved combinations were not so good compared with DP.Therefore, GA process was improved to get better combinations, in this paper.This method could also be applied in metal mines for grade controls.

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The aim of this study is to quantitatively assess upcoming shotages in the supply of copper,which sustains essential socio-economic activities. This study clarifies copper shortage and depletion years through demand forecast modeling and supply potential assumptions. Copper demand models were built for industry sectors based upon GDP(gross domestic production)and population,referring to four SRES scenarios(Special Report on Emissions Scenarios)published by IPCC(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). We considered the following four supply potentials: (i) resource, (ii) resource based, (iii) technological limitation based available for gold mining,and (iv) geological limitation based on crustal abundance and mining depth. The algorithms for calculating the years of shortage and depletion were as follows: (i) total copper demand scenario from 2000 to 2100 is fitted linear, (ii) the inverse slope of the linear-fitted curve is assumed for copper supply from the supply peak (i.e., year of shortage), (iii) years of the supply shortage and the depletion are calculated so that cumulative supply amount covered by the two lines plus historical production of copper before 1999 is equal to the assumed supply potentials. The total demand is forecasted at the maximum for A1 scenario and at the minimum for B1 scenario of the SRES scenario. The coming shortage years for the four SRES scenarios are (i) within 2008 and 2013 based on the resource, (ii) within 2015 and 2024 based on the resource based, and (iii) within 2047 and 2085 based on both technological and geological limitations. The depletion years are in the latter half of the 21st Century for both resource and resource based, and within the 22nd Century for both the limitation based. The afraid coming shortage of copper will be an immediate and significant problem for the next one or two decades. Depletion and shortages of copper will be coming probably during the 21st Century, even though progress in mining technologies is assumed. This implies possible threats to sustainable development are coming from demand/supply of copper as well as global warming.

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：Japan Society of Geoinformatics  

In underground construction projects such as radio activate waste disposal facilities, clarification of the rock failure mechanism is an important, though difficult task. Although many informative studies have been published on this topic, additional research is needed to help keep these structures stable for many years. In this study, microcracks were firstly identified by the fluorescent method and next classified in detail in order to analyze the relationships and processes in crack growth and junction. That is, microcracks are classified into three kinds of cracks:intracrystalline cracks,intercrystalline cracks and grain boundary cracks. In spite of the complicated features of cracks, these detailed classifications became possible by image processing.Observed crack directions and length(total length/mm2)became more characteristic as lateral strain increased especially in post-failure specimens. At first, the number of intracrystalline cracks and grain boundary cracks increased slowly, and intercrystalline cracks did not increase much. Intercrystalline cracks, however, increased in number around junctions and rapidly increased after junction in the typical three directions and in total length. On the other hand, intracrystalline cracks and grain boundary cracks almost stopped growing after junction. Thus, we found that intercrystallinecracks have a quite important role in the sharing process, although they are less numerous than other crack types.Because of the complicated images, fractal dimensions were also measured by box counting method in these stages. Though intracrystalline cracks and grain boundary cracks showed almost the same fractal dimensions throughout the failure process, intercrystalline cracks increased in number especially in post-failure specimens, suggesting intercrystalline cracks have an important role in the failure process. In fractal dimensions, the same trends were seen.

DOI： 10.6010/geoinformatics.14.241

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (international conference proceedings)  

Limestone quarries where slaked lime is produced for steel makers have been urged to reduce the concentration of phosphorus in their products. In a few quarries in Japan, limestone blocks with low concentrations are blended with limestone blocks with high concentrations to stay below the limit of permitted phosphorus quality. The life of the quarry is extended as long as possible by this blending. Some quarries have a geological database with accurate records of the operations for phosphorus adjustment. However, the combination problem of these blocks typically is addressed by Dynamic Programming
that is, all combinations of possible limestone blocks are examined in the solving process
the combination numbers are so huge that the optimum combination cannot be solved in practical process times. Although it took 8 hours to solve for 600 blocks with a 2GHz high performance personal computer, it would take more than 36 days to approximately solve for 1200 blocks, and 3,378 days are estimated to solve 2,400 blocks. Therefore, a Genetic Algorithm was used to try and work out the optimum combination. First, blocks that can be removed are selected in the quarry and their removal sequence makes the genotype. The Order-base or the Grefenstette method was applied to avoid generating lethal genes in crossover. The fitness value was estimated by the number of products that included less than the permitted concentration of phosphorus. The GA process took less than 3 hours to solve for 1,200 blocks. Because the processing time is almost proportional to the block numbers, this GA method is practical in large quarries. Moreover, this method is easy to apply to other conditions in mining plans, such as environmental protection, noise prevention and eyesore problems. These problems are becoming important factors in quarries near towns in Japan. © 2003 International Association for Mathematical Geology.

DOI： 10.1023/A:1025132122292

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV  

The behavior of a granite subject to a triaxial compression test ranging from the prefailure stage to the postfailure stage was studied using a fluorescent technique from the geological point of view. Microscopic observations of the specimens at different stages showed changes in the failure process. The start of formation of new microcracks paralleled the compression direction through their propagation until the onset of faulting and ended with the failure of shear zones after the strength failure point. Pores chiefly identified in the feldspar increased in length and width in the early stages, but not in number. It seems that the effect of pore spaces did not have any effect of failure. The microcracks generated on angular edges of quartz or feldspar grains and around biotite grains with increasing compression force. The phenomenon appearing on the crystal boundaries among biotite and quartz or feldspar agrees with the result calculated based on the theory on stress fields with ellipsoidal inhomogeneity suggested by Eshelby. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：Japan Society of Engineering Geology  

Geological database has become available for mine management because many advanced functions were added with rapid progress in PC hardware performance. In mining management, more careful planning and serious quality control are required because of environmental problem. That is, applying geological database in mining becomes the most important subject to realize both of lower expenses and higher quality. Therefore, using the MineSight that is one of the most popular software, the possibilities of database were examined in case of the Atago lime stone open-pit mine.Availability of geological database was proven, that is, geologic maps are effective to make mining plan by composing one another. These plans can adjust concentration to realize high quality control and make all mining terms longer. To improve accuracy, it is necessary to master the database operations, because the range value and concentration maps are avairable information for effective boring. On the other hand, new functions are asked, for instance, mining simulations for quality control under environmental protection, i.e., eyesore and noise prevention.

DOI： 10.5110/jjseg.42.335

CiNii Books

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Other Link： https://jlc.jst.go.jp/DN/JALC/00155843798?from=CiNii

Language：English   Publisher：Japan Society of Geoinformatics  

High-resolution satellite imagery is expected to use open-pit mine management as well as air photograph. Moreover, satellite imagery will be easier to get because new satellites are now planned to launch. Therefore, IKONOS imagery that took some quarries was investigated and its possibilities for mine management were examined. As a result, it is clarified that IKONOS resolution is enough to monitor mine such as operating process, dangerous parts in working face, tree planting condition and amount of drain. If an operator makes a DTM from satellite images, there will be more possibilities. The accurately modified DTM shows the working face by 3D graphics and operators can simulate a mining plan in 3D images through a HMD or HMP. In addition, DTM makes truck control possible. At present, only skillful engineers can make DTM, but mining operators have to make it themselves if they wish to use DTM flexibly. To realize DTM possibilities, it is necessary to arrange software for mining operators who have little remote-sensing knowledge.

DOI： 10.6010/geoinformatics.12.211

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Language：Japanese  

Statistical analysis was examined on both global and regional basis to explain the relationship between economic development and consumption of metal and energy. Regarding 1900 to 1995, world consumption showed low positive and stable long-term increasing until 1950 whereas they increased quickly after 1950, especially between 1950 and 1973. From 1973 to 1983, metal and energy consumption fluctuated or declined gradually because of twice oil shocks. After that, energy consumption began to increase again while metal trends still lasted fluctuating.These trends are quite similar to Japanese trend, thatis, two characteristic trends related to economic development could be considered as follows. (1) Through the age of light to heavy industry, metal consumption grows up more than energy. (2) In service society, energy consumption increases rapidly whereas metal consumption fluctuates around same level. U.S.A, U.K. and France are now in service society bacause their energy consumption is higher than metals. On the other hand, Germany shows different trend from other countries.It is clarified that many developing countries will undergo same process. Korea is now in shift to service society, and China is in heavy industry, because their metal consumption is increasing more than energy, especially in China. India is still in light industry because metal consumption has not yet showed much increase. However energy consumption grows up rapidly at same time. It would mean that service or information industry needs much energy in light industry society.

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Limestone quarries where slaked lime is produced for steel makers have been urged to reduce the concentration of phosphorus in their products. In quite a few quarries in Japan, limestone blocks with low concentrations are blended with limestone blocks with high concentrations to stay below the limit of permitted phosphorus quality. The life of the quarry is extended as long as possible by this blending. Some quarries have a geological database with accurate records of the operations for phosphorus adjustment.However, the combination problem of these blocks typically is addressed by Dynamic Programming, that is, all combinations of possible limestone blocks are examined in the solving process; the combination numbers are so huge that the optimum combination cannot be solved in practical process times. Though it took 8 hours to solve 600 blocks with a 2GHz high performance personal computer, it would take more than 36 days to approximately solve for 1200 blocks, and 3,378days are estimated to solve 2,400 blocks.Therefore, a Genetic Algorithm was used to try and work out the optimum combination. Firstly, blocks that can be dug out are chosen in quarry and their digging sequence makes the genotype. The Order-base or the Grefenstette method was applied to avoid generating lethal genes in crossover.The fitness value was estimated by the number of products that included less than the permitted concentration of phosphorus.The GA process took less than 3 hours to solve for 1,200 blocks. Since the processing time is almost proportional to the block numbers, this GA method is practical in large quarries. Moreover, this method is easy to apply to other conditions in mining plans, such as environmental protection, noise prevention and eyesore problems. These problems are becoming important factors in quarries near towns in Japan.

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：SOC RESOURCE GEOLOGY  

Advanced techniques are examined to observe microstructure of rocks using image analysis combined with methods such as the fluorescent approach and the application of optical characteristics of minerals. Analyzed are discrimination of grains in rocks, distribution patterns of grain orientation in sandstone, changes of grain shape as weathering advances and distribution patterns of microcracks in granite. In Shirahama sandstone, relatively large and flat grains are orientated parallel to the bedding on the plane perpendicular to the bedding, while grains on the plane parallel to the bedding show random patterns. In weathered granite, it is clarified that the grain surface becomes complex as weathering advances and differences among three major mineral species are identified. In Inada granite, intracrystalline cracks predominate over intercrystalline cracks and.-rain boundary cracks both in total length and number. Furthermore, three types of microcracks show different orientations; the intercrystalline cracks show a dominant orientation which coincides with the orientation of the rift plane, the easiest plane to split, while the intracrystalline cracks and grain boundary cracks show no preferred orientation.

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Our objects are 1) providing a method for forecasting the future copper price, 2) forecasting the future copper price applying our method and 3) evaluating the expansion plans of copper supply in developing countries, especially in Chile (from 2000 to 2002).Our method for forecasting copper price is as follows. First of all, the supply and demand functions in copper market are estimated by 2SLS (two stage least squares). The independent variables of supply function are copper price, the present mine production and the previous mine production. Those of demand function are copper price and the world GDP.Secondly, we calculate the critical prices for closure for the existing copper mines and then we can estimate the maximum copper supply (the copper supply frontier) for various copper prices. Thirdly, we forecast the future copper price using the estimated supply and demand functions and the copper supply frontier.The expansion plans of copper supply in developing countries (2000〜2002) have a considerable effect on the forecasted future copper price. It can be thought that those countries, especially Chile have the expansion plans strategically. That is, some of the existing mines will have to be closed in 2000 and 2001 because of low prices derived by the expansion plans in developing countries. As a result, the developing countries can increase largely their profits in the relatively high price period (2002) followed by the low price period (2000〜2001).KEY WORDS: The Estimation of Supply and Demand Functions in Copper Market, Critical Price for Closure, Copper Supply Frontier, Forecasts of Copper Price, Production Expansion in Developing Countries.

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (international conference proceedings)   Publisher：MINERALS, METALS & MATERIALS SOC  

Human society evolved from an agricultural to industrial and, subsequently, to a service society. As the resource requirements for each stage of this development differ, trends of metal and energy consumption are related to shifts in society. The increase pattern of supplemental energy is similar to that of mineral production throughout the world. Low positive acid stable long-term increasing occurred before 1950, whereas they increased quickly after 1950, especially between 1950 and 1973. A substantial decline in the growth of energy and mineral production began in 1973 and lasted until the early 1980s. Production of energy resources has recently begun to increase again at a high growth rare in the world. Observing the consumption trends of energy and key metals, it is clarified that increasing patterns can be thought in three stages.

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier Science Ltd  

Energy consumption has increased remarkably over the past half century mainly due to increasing population and economic development. The influences of these two factors are considered. In most developed countries, such as Japan, France, Germany and Korea, the growth rate of energy consumption is due to economic development. The effects of population in Germany and Japan will substantially decline. In the USA, it is due to both factors as well as in the developing countries, such as China, India, Indonesia and Latin America. Economic success is more effective than increasing population in China, India and Indonesia, while both factors are roughly equal in Latin America. In Africa, though the growth rate depends on the effect of increasing population, its contribution to world energy consumption is small. On a worldwide scale, the growth rate of energy consumption will be affected by improving standards of living.

DOI： 10.1016/S0306-2619(00)00033-7

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In the field of pfotogrammetry, the automatic photogrammetry system has gradually become more practical as a result of the improvement of image processing. For the management of geographical features in open pit mines, it is efficient to use this system. Therefore the automatic photogrammetry system using digital images has been experimented with obtainig digital topographic data. When the results were compared to both GPS and TS, the differrences in the horizontal and vertical directions were from 5cm to 48cm on average. These values are acceptable for practice. Taking measurements by using convergent photography is more accurate than by using parallel photography, as convergent photography requires more photographs than parallel photography. Highly accurate data cannot be obtained under poor conditions, i.e., in areas where there is tall grass and tall trees. Therefore, it is important to consider the cost-performance of the aforementioned methods and there ground conditions.

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RTK-GPS (Real Time Kinematic-Global Positioning System) was applied to topographic survey in open-cut mines. The operation of the survey involves great difficulties, such as obstacles caused by local topography and electromagnetic noises interfering with micro-wave from GPS-satellites. Therefore, the survey was carried out under conditions when a good GPS-satellite constellation was formed in the sky, limited by local topography in each working face. A clear data link between two GPS-receivers on the working face was also important. In a field experiment at an opening at an operation open-cut mine, about 190 points were surveyed in a about 5 hours on two successive days. Repeatability was estimated to be about 6cm in coordinates obtained by the RTK-GPS. Topographic changes by operation were well pointed out by examining plotted RTK-GPS surveyed points on the topographic map surveyed by the traditional method. Consistency in coordinates was estimated to be about 9cm between traditional local coordinates and those obtained by the RTK-GPS.Usefulness of the RTK-GPS was clearly demonstrated by examining actual field data acquired in operating open-cut mines. Rapid and precise measurement by the RTK-GPS is more suitable than the traditional optical surveying method for monitoring the topographic change in working face and for providing digital topographic data required for computer systems.

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Utilization of digital topographic data for open pit mines was analyzed, including topographic map generation, modification of estimation of mine productivity. On previous topographic maps of open-pit mines generated by computer systems, construction details, such was working faces and roads, were difficult to identify from the contour lines. In these maps, many contour lines were drawn very close together due to large fluctuations in topographic features. The presence of large numbers of contour lines often obstructed construction details. To identify these construction details, the outlines of each construction were drawn, and the contour lines enclosed by these outlines were erased. Furthermore, construction details, such as manufacturing plants and office buildings, which were not identified by the contour lines, were drawn using the same algorithm. Highly detailed maps that distinguished these construction details from contour lines were then created. This digital topographic data was useful for simulating scene changes and extent of mining. Computer graphics allowed simulation of scene changes in advance, and provided basic data concerning future changes. Moreover, these maps allowed accurate estimates of mine production to be calculated. To generate these maps, GPS(Global Positioning System) was utilized to measure topographic changes only where the operations had taken place. Furthermore, construction detail outlines were also obtained from the operator's input previously arranged by rule, i.e. inputting a set of surveyed points for construction. This mapping system easily maintained monthly or annually updated data on topographic and construction changes. For production schedule simulation, topographic map, computer graphics and product estimations based on monthly or annually up-to-date digital topographic data were useful.

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Since the cost of transportation is more than the mining costs in resource for mass production, efficient methods of transporting, which are appropriate for individuals, are being used. Tough the amount of crushed stone produced is large, the main means for transportation of it is trucking between quarry and a place of demand, for its small lots demand. Therefore, the efficiency of trucking for crushed stone supply is an important problem with respect to the stability of cost and supply. However, the efficiency of trucking is greatly influenced by the traffic situation in individual districts, conditions of location of supply sites and the distant to the place of demand. Thus, it is difficult to clarify the optimum transportation system. A method of reducing the total time taken in trucking and of minimizing the cost was investigated by a simulation model.The area investigated was the south of Hyogo prefecture. The large amounts of crushed stone are expected to be needed in several years because of the reconstruction work after the Hanshin earth-quake in this area. It is important for the smooth implementation of the reconstruction plan to secure crushed stone and to transport it quickly. Vehicles for reconstruction work take precedence over others around the stricken areas. Despite such traffic control, serious traffic snarls occur every day. The efficiency of trucking was therefore investigated by clarifying changes in the total transporting costs and by investigating the influence of the establishment of a transit place and traffic snarls by a simulation model. Some transit places were quite effective for reducing the total time of transportation. The simulation analysis used in this study can be easily performed for other districts with same conditions.

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The usefulness of computer graphics as a means of simulating changes in landscape caused by stone quarrying was examined. Montage and perpective projections were used to depict the color and other features of the surface of mountains, the course of tree planting on the pit face and the features of a newly developed pit face. A wireframe model was used to predict changes in the geographical features of quarries on the basis of existing stone-quarrying plants. By combining these techniques, we cevised a method for editing two-dimensional still pictures, obtained from video tapes, from various angles,i.e.,by up to 30 degrees and the angle of elevation by up to about 10 degrees. Still images of the current scene and the predicted future scene were made while grad-ually changing the angle of view. These pictures were linked to each other to yield an animation which represents the expected changes in the scene as viewed from a car moving past the front of the quarry.This simulation method allowed us to estimate changes in the scene in advane,and was found to be quite useful in obtaining basic data concerning future changes in the scene which could be caused by stone quarrying.

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Although crushed stone is indispensable to building and maintenance of social infrastructure and a large amount of it has been used, few papers have studied crushed stone resources because of their abundance. In Japan, nevertheless, maintaining a stable supply against the increasing demand will become a serious problem. There are many problems in mining crushed stone and these can be classified as economic and social restrictions. Economic restrictions arise mainly from increases in both labor and transportation costs. Social restrictions include many environmental protection regulations by national and local authorities. In this paper, problems concerning crushed stone resources are classified as a part of geoscience and their deposits, demand and supply are considered. Efforts that should be made in the future to increase the potential of the quarrying business can be arranged into these categories, that is, automated methods of planning the mine site, efficient systems of transportation from factory to consumer, effective measures to deal with spoiled slight.

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There are many factors which would be obstacles against stable supply of mineral resources, and unstable supply causes serious disruptions in both the economy and industry. Since supply conditions for each metal are different, it is impossible to simply discuss the reason why shortages occur. For base metals that have along history of use like copper, iron, lead and zinc, it is relatively easy to clarify their market mechanisms, whereas for most rare metals it is difficult to discuss the relation between supply and demand.In the I.T. (Information Technology) industry, munitions industry and space development, new materials are continuously developed from many rare metals, and market mechanisms are always changed by these new materials. As a result, some rare metals used as high function materials are immediately needed for import. For instance, powdered tantalum has been in short supply as the demand for I.T. products, such as mobile phones and laptop personas computers, increase rap-idly.This shortage causes a steep rise in price and the market shifts to speculation.This shortage causes a steep rise in price and the market shifts to speculation.This shortage causes a steep rise in price and the market shifts to speculation.This shortage causes a steep rise in price and the market shifts to speculation. Shortages are the most serious problem in Japan because we consume 20-25% of the world's products. Thus, lack of resources affects not only the economy but also technology.In this paper, conditions of supply and demand of mineral resources were considered in base metals and tare metals.

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Interregional Input-Output Tables of the Chinese Economy in 1987

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With regard to utilization of GPS (Global Positioning System) in open pit mining, in Japan are there reports for cases of prevention of soil damage with sensing of shell variation1) and of evaluation of measuring precision around normal surface2). However, these are mostly still in a stage of experimental phase since some require attainment of high precision in level of mm in order to be practically applied and some are to be established with a method of application even in cases where high precision is not required3). On the other hand at overseas, optimum layout of heavy equipment in large scale open pit mines is practically done with use of GPS.Recently we have been bestowed with opportunity to visit Chino Mines Company of Phelps Dodge Mining Corp. of United State as an example of use of GPS for optimum layout of heavy equipment. Chino Mines Company mainly produces copper, and is owned 67% by Phelps Dodge Mining Corp. and 33% by Heisei Mining Company.The system of optimum layout of heavy equipment that had been introduced to the mine is ”Mine Management System (DISPATCHR)” that has been developed and marketed by Modular Mining System Company, and has attained record of world wide installation.In the present article will be reported the latest technology trend in Chino Mines Company of United State as an example of the use of GPS in open pit mines.

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